Disability Glossary

A | B | C | D | E | F-H | I-K | L | M-O | P-R | S-T | U-Z

A

Access audit

A survey of a part of the built environment to identify the barriers that prevent disabled people having full access, and the recommended solutions for adaptation.

Achondroplasia

Achondroplasia, or short stature (previously Dwarfism), is a rare genetic condition, but one of the most common types of restricted growth, with disproportionate short stature. Achondroplasia is mainly a physical condition, with affected people having normal intelligence. Many practical difficulties can be overcome with a little imagination and there is no reason why someone with achondroplasia should not participate in most activities.

Albinism

A group of genetic disorders in which the affected individual has reduced or absent pigmentation. This usually affects the skin, hair and eyes (sometimes the eyes alone are affected).

Asthma

This is a complex condition that can start at any time of life. It is a condition that affects the small tubes that carry air in and out of the lungs. Children with asthma have airways that are almost always red and inflamed. These react badly when the child  has a cold or other viral infection, or when s/he comes into contact with an asthma trigger. A trigger is anything that irritates the airways and causes the symptoms of asthma to appear. The usual symptoms are coughing, wheezing, breathlessness or a tight feeling in the chest. The muscle around the walls of the airways tightens so that the airway becomes narrower. The lining of the airway swells and produces a sticky mucus. As the airways narrow, it becomes difficult for the air to move in and out - this results in breathing difficulties with a wheezing or whistling noise. Children may experience symptoms only occasionally, or just at night, or first thing in the morning, or after exercise. A few experience them all the time. Everybody's asthma is different and a variety of triggers can make symptoms worse, including viral infections, exercise, cold weather and tobacco smoke. 'Allergens', such as the house dust mite (a normally harmless creature that lives in beds, carpets and soft furnishings), pollen and animal fur can also trigger asthma. Avoiding all these triggers all of the time is impossible, but it is useful to encourage children with asthma to be aware of their triggers and to avoid them if they can. Current research suggests that, rather than one definitive cause of asthma, we are more likely to find that it is a combination of genetic, environmental and lifestyle factors. 2000 people a year die from asthma attacks in the UK.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

This is a common condition affecting several per cent of school-age children. It is more common in boys, but girls may currently be under-diagnosed. There are three subtypes: ADHD mainly inattentive; ADHD mainly hyperactive-impulsive; and ADHD combined. ADHD is an impairment of either activity or attention control or both. The problem presents as a child who is always on the go, does not settle to anything, has poor concentration, poor ability to organise activities or to engage in tedious activities, or tasks requiring sustained mental effort, or who cannot stay still and cannot wait for others. The diagnostic features are: inattentiveness - very short attention span, over-frequent changes of activity, extreme distractibility; overactivity - excessive movements, especially in situations expected to be calm, such as in the classroom or at mealtimes; impulsiveness - the affected person will not wait their turn, acts without thinking, is thoughtless, rule-breaking.

Autism

The 'autistic spectrum' is the term used for a range of impairments affecting the development of social interaction, communication and imagination. This triad of impairments may be due to severe problems in making sense of experiences, especially the complicated, constantly-changing social world. This results in a lack of imaginative understanding of other people's thoughts, feelings and needs, and difficulty in acquiring the subtle, unspoken rules of social interaction. Instead of the usual wide range of social interests, those affected have a narrow, repetitive pattern of activities that absorb most or all of their attention. There is great variation in the way the triad is manifested and attempts have been made to define subgroups. The best known of these are 'typical autism' and 'Asperger syndrome'. The first term is usually used for those who have no interest in social interaction, little or no language, and who tend to live in their own world of stereotyped activities. Asperger syndrome is usually used for those who are more able, who have better language development and who try to make social contacts but in naive and inappropriate ways. In clinical practice, all suggested subgroups overlap with each other and the boundaries are unclear. A small proportion of individuals with the triad have remarkably high levels of ability in one or two specific skills, in contrast to their impairments in other areas - the so-called 'autistic savants'. The triad of impairments can occur on its own but is often associated with other developmental disorders, including all degrees of learning disability, specific learning disorders, and attention deficit and hyperactivity.

Back to top

B

Barriers

Environmental, communication, attitudinal or organisational structures, policies, practices or beliefs which prevent disabled people from participating in or accessing activities and the ordinary life of society on an equal level with non-disabled people.

Braille

A system of raised dots representing the letters of the alphabet, punctuation and numbers, based on the six patterns of a dice, which enables blind people to read by touching and to write using an embosser. Invented by Louise Braille.

British Sign Language

A visual means of communication relying on gestures, facial expressions and body language, used within the deaf community and learned naturally by interaction, which is not dependent on a spoken language.

Brittle bone diseases (Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI)

These diseases are caused by an abnormality in the collagen protein that the body needs for bones as well as other structures, such as skin, ligaments and teeth. The condition often leads to an increased likelihood of fractures. Abnormalities in other collagen-containing tissues lead to additional problems in some patients, such as lax joints, fragile teeth, blue or grey sclera (whites of eyes) and bruising. Some people with OI have short stature and some develop deafness, particularly in their teenage years or twenties. There are a number of types of brittle bone disease that can vary in severity from mild, in which the patient may not be correctly diagnosed and may simply be thought to be accident-prone, through to severe, in which babies have multiple fractures even before birth. The frequency of fractures may increase in adolescence, following childbirth in women and during late adulthood.

Back to top

C

Cerebral palsy

This is a disorder of movement and posture which is apparent in the early years. It is due to damage or failure in development of the part of the brain concerned with movement. Adjacent parts of the brain may also be injured and this may lead to poor sight, deafness or other perceptual difficulties. Children with cerebral palsy may also have learning difficulties. Impairment resulting from cerebral palsy may be very slight or very severe. Difficulties include awkwardness in walking, or of hand and arm movements, or speech. Severely affected children may require physical support and other forms of assistance. There are three main forms of cerebral palsy: spasticity - disordered control of movement often associated with tight muscles; athetosis - frequent involuntary movements; ataxia - unsteady gait with problems of balance. It is not inherited.

Condition

The particular impairment a disabled person is affected by. There are some 30,000 different conditions and only the best-known are in this glossary. For more information, Contact a Family has produced a very useful on-line directory. However, remember this is written from a medical model point of view.

Cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis causes the mucous glands to produce abnormally thick, adherent mucus, and the sweat glands to produce excess salt. The two main areas of the body involved are the lungs and the pancreas (part of the digestive system). The mucus causes the principal complications. In cystic fibrosis the lungs are normal at birth but become susceptible to bacterial infection and damage. The thick mucus collects in the lungs, blocking some airways and resulting in damage from the infection. Much of this damage can be prevented by adequate treatment of infections. In the pancreas, the small channels (through which the enzymes produced in the pancreas flow to reach the intestines) become blocked with mucus. This results in cysts forming and these lead to fibrosis in the pancreas. The enzymes produced by the pancreas are vital to normal digestion. Digestive enzyme preparations can replace most of the digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas. This is controlled by physiotherapy and drugs to help clear the mucus, and antibiotics to tackle the infections. Cystic fibrosis is a life-threatening condition. 75% of affected children now survive to young adulthood and the average survival is around 30 years. The condition is inherited.

Back to top

D

Deafness

The human ear is a very sophisticated sensory organ that performs two functions: hearing and balance. It is probably the most developed sensory system in humans, apart from vision. The outer, middle and inner ear, hearing nerve and its central connections allow us to hear what we want to hear while suppressing what we don't, and to attach meanings so that an appropriate response can be made. Hearing is extremely important for the development of spoken language. Those with pre-lingual profound hearing loss will not have access to speech sounds and will not develop oral language, while those with a severe pre-lingual hearing loss will not develop normal speech. Moderate hearing loss may affect speech and (oral) language development and will have a considerable effect on the mainstream education of children. Mild hearing losses may also affect the ability to learn, depending on other factors. The incidence of significant permanent congenital hearing loss is about 1 in 1,000 live births. This almost doubles by the age of 10 years because of acquired hearing loss from meningitis, mumps, measles, trauma and other causes.

Diabetes mellitus

This is a condition in which the amount of glucose (sugar) in the blood is too high because the body cannot use it properly. Glucose comes from the digestion of starchy foods, such as bread, rice, potatoes, chapatis, yams and plantain, from sugar and other sweet foods, and from the liver which makes glucose. Insulin is vital for life. It is a hormone produced by the pancreas, which helps the glucose to enter the cells where it is used as fuel by the body. The main symptoms of untreated diabetes are increased thirst, going to the loo all the time (especially at night), extreme tiredness, weight loss, genital itching or regular episodes of thrush, and blurred vision. Type 1 (insulin dependent) diabetes develops if the body is unable to produce any insulin. This type usually appears before the age of 40. It is treated by insulin injections and diet. Type 2 (non-insulin dependent) diabetes develops when the body can still make some insulin, but not enough, or when the insulin produced does not work properly (known as insulin resistance). This type usually appears in people over the age of 40, though often appears before this in South Asian and African-Caribbean people. It is treated by diet alone, or by diet and tablets or, sometimes, by diet and insulin injections. The main aim of treatment of both types of diabetes is to achieve near-normal blood glucose and blood pressure levels. This, together with a healthy lifestyle, will help to improve well-being and may protect against long-term damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart and major arteries.

Disability 1

'Disability is the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the normal life of the community on an equal level with others due to physical and social barriers.' (Disabled People's International 1981)

Disability 2

'A person has a disability if he has a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on his ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities.' (Definition of disability under the 1995 DDA).

Disabled people

People who are discriminated against because they have a long-term impairment.

Disabled People's Movement

All those disabled people who, regardless of the type or severity of their impairment, consider they are disabled by the structures and attitudes in society, and are therefore subject to a common oppression.

Down's Syndrome

This is a chromosomal disorder that occurs when, instead of the normal complement of two copies of chromosome 21, there is a whole (or sometimes part of an) additional chromosome 21. A chromosome is a rod-like structure present in the nucleus of all body cells, with the exception of the red blood cells, which stores genetic information. Normally, humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, the unfertilised ova and each sperm carrying a set of 23 chromosomes. On fertilisation, the chromosomes combine to give a total of 46 (23 pairs). A normal female has an XX pair and a normal male an XY pair. Chromosome abnormalities give rise to specific physical features. The range of cognitive disabilities as well as other attributes is enormously wide in Down's Syndrome. The majority are in the mild range of cognitive ability. Associated defects may include ear and/or eye defects, an increased propensity for infections and heart defects.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD)

This is a relatively common and severe neuromuscular disorder, affecting approximately one in every 3-4,000 male live births. The hallmark of the disease is the progressive weakness of all muscles; proximal muscles of the limbs are most severely affected. Children usually present with mild delay of the motor milestones, such as walking, and with tiptoe and unsteady gait. Difficulties in rising from the floor, going upstairs and running are usually evident in the first two to three years of life. Enlarged calves can be seen in most children, especially in the early phases of the disease. A frequently-associated feature (30% of cases) is mild learning disability. Presentation with predominantly cognitive problems is not uncommon (eg speech delay). This is not progressive. The weakness, however, is progressive and children with DMD will lose the ability to walk by the age of thirteen - the average age being approximately nine. This is due to a combination of weakness and contractures affecting the ankles, knees and hips.

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a specific type of learning difficulty where a person of normal intelligence has persistent and significant problems with reading, writing, spelling and, sometimes, mathematics and musical notation. The person may not have difficulties in other areas: many dyslexic people are extremely creative, think laterally and have excellent problem-solving skills. It may be helpful to think of dyslexia as an information processing difficulty. Dyslexia is a complex learning difficulty because of the number of characteristics associated with it, such as lack of phonological awareness, poor short-term memory or confusion about left and right, which vary from individual to individual. The effects of dyslexia can be alleviated by early recognition and skilled specialist teaching. It is also known as a specific learning difficulty.

Dyspraxia

This is a developmental disorder of organisation and planning of physical movement. The essential feature is the impairment of motor function that significantly interferes with academic achievement or activities of daily living, and is not due to a general medical condition, such as cerebral palsy or muscular dystrophy. Performance in daily activities that require motor co-ordination is substantially below that expected, given the person's chronological age and general intelligence. This may be manifested in marked delays in achieving the main motor milestones of sitting, crawling and walking, or such problems as difficulty in self-help skills, knocking over or dropping things, poor performance in sport or poor handwriting. Dyspraxia presents great variation between one child and another. The overall result is discrepant academic performance. The child shows ability by having good oral skills but is unable to achieve literacy or recording skills at the same level. Poor concentration and attention control, and physical restlessness or over-activity may be an additional problem. It is not uncommon for such children to be described by teachers as lazy or poorly motivated. Also known as a specific learning difficulty.

Back to top

E

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is the tendency to have recurrent seizures originating in the brain as a result of excessive or disordered discharge of brain cells. Seizures are divided into two categories, generalised or partial. In generalised seizures, both hemispheres of the brain are involved. The seizures include major convulsive episodes with jerking of all limbs and unconsciousness (tonic clonic seizures); seizures when the body goes stiff (tonic) or floppy (atonic); jerks of the limbs (myoclonic jerks) and momentary lapses of consciousness (absences). In partial (or focal) seizures, the disturbance of brain activity starts in, or involves, a specific part of the brain. The nature of such seizures depends upon the area of the brain involved. Partial seizures may be simple or complex. Consciousness is not lost in a simple partial seizure, but is impaired in a complex partial seizure. The condition can be controlled by drugs, but these have major side effects.

Eugenics

Eugenicists, at the end of the 19th century and start of the 20th, believed disabled people and other socially undesirable groups, such as vagrants and 'moral defectives', would weaken the gene pool of the nation and reduce competitiveness. Increasingly, disabled people were shut away in single sex institutions for life or sterilised. Separate special schools and day-centres were set up that denied non-disabled people the day-to-day experience of living and growing up with disabled people, and vice-versa. Following the excesses of the Third Reich, those who espoused these ideas found other forums to promote their ideas, through family planning eg Planned Parenthood Federation and, more recently, through genetic counselling and the GENOME Project.

Back to top

F-H

Fingerspelling

The use of certain handshapes (In the UK, using two hands) to represent letters of the written alphabet for deaf communication.

Back to top

I-K

Impairment

Impairment is the loss or limitation of physical, mental or sensory function on a long-term or permanent basis.

Inclusion

Inclusion is about a child's right to belong to their local mainstream school, to be valued for who they are and be provided with all the support they need to thrive there, including removing the barriers that prevent their full participation. As society is not generally organised like this, it requires planned restructuring of those elements of the built environment, organisation, procedures and attitudes that discriminate against disabled people, and other excluded groups, so they can participate on an equal level with others.

Integration

This term means that disabled people can access mainstream services, but these do not adjust or restructure to remove barriers. All forms of integration assume some form of assimilation of the disabled person into mainstream structures, which remain largely unchanged.

Back to top

L

Learning difficulty

This is the term chosen by people with learning difficulties to describe their impairment because they believe their situation can change through access to education. They reject the term mental handicap as it has come to represent their segregation. Learning difficulty covers a wide range of intellectual impairment. Generally, someone is considered to have a learning difficulty when they function at a level of intellectual ability which is significantly lower than their chronological age. Increased difficulties in acquiring basic life skills, and increased dependence on others are common. Specialist educational input is usually required, but this is frequently possible within mainstream school settings. Mild learning difficulty is usually caused by a combination of restricted learning and social opportunities plus a high rate of learning disability in close relatives. Moderate-to-profound learning difficulty usually has a specific biological cause. However, there are exceptions in either case. Learning difficulty may occur in isolation, in association with other sensory or physical impairments, or as part of a recognisable genetic syndrome.

Lipreading

Understanding a spoken language by following the lip patterns of the speaker. Less than half the speech sounds of English are shown on the lips and lipreading is a skill not everyone can master.

Back to top

M-O

Medical model

In this model, disabled people are seen as a problem to be cured or 'fixed' by therapy, medicine, surgery and special treatments. It becomes a personal tragedy when this can't happen. Powerful and pervasive views reflecting this model are reinforced in the media, books, films, art and language.

Mental health

Mental health and mental health problems are not exact terms, but their components can broadly be said to include: the ability to develop socially, emotionally and intellectually; the ability to initiate and sustain mutually satisfying relationships; the ability to empathise with others; and the ability to learn from periods of emotional difficulty and distress, and to develop because of them. Defined in this way, mental health, unlike physical health, is something of an ideal state. Mental health problems are difficulties which arise in these areas, and are likely to have their roots in constitutional, environmental or social factors, or a combination of these. Such problems cover a wide spectrum of emotional and behavioural difficulties, which vary significantly in their severity and duration. At one end of the spectrum, mental health problems in children may be relieved by the love and support of families and other carers, without intervention from a mental health professional. At the other end of the spectrum, mental or psychiatric disorders suggest the existence of a clinically-recognisable set of symptoms or behaviour, in accordance with the standards set out in the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases (ICD10), which mean that children are likely to need specialist help. Mental health problems in children are common and are likely to affect over 20% of children or young people at some stage, and one in four adults. Mental disorders are less common, and are likely to affect less than one child in ten.

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

MS is the most common potentially disabling disease of the central nervous system affecting young adults. The lifetime risk is about 1:500 in the UK and there is a slight excess risk in females (it affects three times more females than males). Onset is usually in early adult life but children and adolescents can be affected. In most patients, the pattern is initially episodic, but the disorder moves through characteristic phases of attacks which recover, episodes leaving persistent deficits and then slow progression; occasionally, multiple sclerosis is progressive from onset. This natural history usually evolves over many years and life expectancy is not significantly reduced. Impairment relates to onset and duration of the progressive phase.

Oppression

An unjust and systematic excessive exercise of power against an identified group of people, such as Jews, homosexuals or disabled people, where the laws, attitudes towards and treatment (including  portrayal) of this group all reinforce this discriminatory situation.

Oralism

A philosophy in the education of deaf people which maintains that language should be oral, ie from the mouth, and consequently Sign languages and deaf teachers should be excluded from the classroom. In its extreme form, oralism even discourages contact between deaf adults (club-joining, marriages, etc) and criticises the public use of Sign language.

Back to top

P-R

Polio (Poliomyelitis/Infantile Paralysis)

Poliomyelitis is caused by an infection with the Poliomyelitis virus, which is an enterovirus. The majority of infections are characterised by a mild fever, often with vomiting or diarrhoea. Weakness or complete paralysis of any of the skeletal muscles appears in a minority of subjects, but this may develop rapidly. After a few days or weeks, the weakness begins to improve and may continue to do so for one to two years. In the most severely affected patients, all the limb and trunk muscles, and the breathing and swallowing muscles, may be affected and treatment with mechanical respiratory support is required to maintain life. The most common long-term effect is weakness of one or more limbs. It occurred in widespread epidemics, particularly after World War 2, but these have largely disappeared with the advent of effective immunisation in the late 1950s. Occasional new cases do, however, appear even in developed countries. In many poor countries until recently it was still prevalent and in some it is still not eradicated today.

Back to top

S-T

Scoliosis

This is a lateral (sideways) curvature of the spine, associated with rotation, so that, in the thoracic spine, the ribs on the convex side are displaced backwards. It is very common, with 25% of the population having some degree of spinal asymmetry in childhood. Curves of over 20° occur in 1-2 per thousand boys and 4-5 per thousand girls. 65% of all cases are idiopathic (cause not known). Most scoliosis occurs in girls at the start of adolescence. When curvature occurs at, or shortly after, birth (infantile curves), boys are often slightly more affected than girls. Interestingly, adolescent curve tends to be more convex to the right whereas infantile ones are to the left. In babies, early diagnosis and treatment is particularly important. Scoliosis may also develop as a result of congenital malformations of the spine, such as hemi-vertebra or fused vertebrae, or in association with spina bifida, polio, ataxia and brittle bones.

Segregation

The forced separation of people into different locations based on fixed criteria about their impairment or gender, social class or ethnicity, over which they have little or no control. For example, being forced to live in reserved areas under apartheid, separate schooling for black and white children in the Southern USA, or making disabled children go to special schools.

Sickle cell anaemia

These are a group of inheritable genetic conditions in which there is an abnormality of the haemoglobin. Haemoglobin carries oxygen to the various organs of the body and is contained in the red blood cells. In sickle cell disorders, some of the red blood cells assume a sickle shape following the release of oxygen. This abnormal shape causes the cells to clump together making their passage through smaller blood vessels difficult. The most common symptoms are episodic pain in the bones, joints, abdomen and other parts of the body, known as 'painful crises'. They may be precipitated by cold, dehydration, or infections. Other problems associated with the condition may affect the spleen or cause jaundice, strokes, blood in the urine, leg ulcers, eye problems, enuresis and delayed puberty. Sickle cell disorders mainly occur in people whose ancestors are of African, African-Caribbean, Mediterranean, Middle Eastern or Indian origins. Tests which can identify carriers or individuals with sickle cell disorder may be undertaken in high-risk groups in pregnancy and before anaesthesia.

Social model

In this model, people with impairments are seen as disabled by their environment, the attitudes of others and the policies, practices and procedures of organisations. Not much can be done to change impairments. A great deal can be done to get rid of barriers and create a more equal society in all aspects of life. This is the struggle for disabled people's rights.

Special Educational Needs (SEN)

Needs which are additional to or different from those that are provided for in an ordinary school. 1996 Education Act.

Speech and language impairments

These can vary greatly in severity and cause. A language difficulty is identified when a child has problems in the acquisition and development of receptive and/or expressive language. Primary communication difficulties often occur in a child who has developed or is developing within the normal range, and there is no evidence that the difficulty is related to or the outcome of a physical disability (for example, severe or profound hearing loss) or an intellectual impairment. Characteristics may vary, and many children do have associated difficulties, including mild/moderate hearing impairment, behavioural difficulties, impaired self-esteem, and general cognitive ability at the lower end of the normal range. A secondary communication difficulty may be associated with severe or profound hearing or intellectual impairment, and with specific syndromes, chromosome defects, cerebral palsy, accident, injury or disease.

Spina bifida

This is a neural tube defect and is a developmental anomaly which occurs very early in pregnancy. The neural tube develops to form the spinal cord, brain and spine. When spina bifida occurs, the tube is split and one or more vertebrae (small bones of the back) fail to form properly, leaving a gap. There are three main types of spina bifida: spina bifida occulta, where the only sign of the malformation is a dimple or hair at the site of the defect on the skin of the back; in spina bifida cystica, a sac or cyst is visible on the back covered by a thin layer of skin; cranium bifida is a failure of development of the bones of the skull. In this form, the sac is called an encephalocele. Hydrocephalus is caused by an imbalance between the production and absorption of cerebro-spinal fluid in the brain. About 80% of people with spina bifida have hydrocephalus.

Spinal cord injury

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain, a thick bundle of nerve fibres from which individual nerves branch off to connect the brain with the muscles, skin and internal organs. Nerves carry messages in both directions: from the brain to individual muscles, telling them to move; and from the skin and other organs to the brain, communicating the senses of touch, pain, pressure or heat and cold. The spinal cord is carried in a hollow channel through the centre of the spinal column, a stack of 33 bony rings (the vertebrae). From the spinal cord, 31 paired spinal nerves branch out to different parts of the body. From the upper part of the cord, these roots connect to the nerves of the upper torso, arms and hands; from the lower cord they lead to the abdomen, thighs, calves and feet. Most spinal cord damage is caused by physical injuries -  road traffic accidents, a fall, diving accident, shot or stab wound etc, and occasionally by a medical accident during surgery. Broken vertebrae or a foreign body pierce or crush the spinal cord itself. If the spinal cord is damaged, the nerves which join the spinal cord below the point of damage may be partially or completely cut off from the brain. Nerves joining above the point of damage should be intact and will continue to operate normally. Nerves below the damage point will continue to conduct messages, but the messages won't get through to the brain and messages from the brain will not reach their destination. Injury to the human spinal cord causes paralysis, the inability to deliberately move or feel particular parts of the body. In general, the higher up the spine the injury, the more limbs will be paralysed and the greater the disruption to normal bodily functions.

Stammering

Stammering is 'characterised by stoppages and disruptions in fluency which interrupt the smooth flow and timing of speech. These stoppages may take the form of repetitions of sounds, syllables or words, or of prolongations of sounds so that words seem to be stretched out, and can involve silent blocking of the airflow of speech when no sound is heard' (Enderby, 1996). Speech may sound forced, tense or jerky. People who stammer may avoid certain words or situations which they know will cause them difficulty. Stammering is not simply a speech difficulty but is a serious communication problem. For the child or adult who stammers it can undermine their confidence and self-esteem, and affect their interactions with others, as well as their education and employment potential.

Stereotypes

These are groups of attitudes which have little or no basis in reality and which persist in cultures. Stereotyping reduces the individuality and character of people to false social constructs, leading to name-calling and violence towards the subjects of stereotyping, and undercutting the humanity of the victims.

Stroke

Stroke is a type of brain injury. It occurs when part of the brain is suddenly damaged or destroyed. There are two main types: ischaemic strokes are the most common (80%). These happen when blood vessels are blocked by a clot or become too narrow for the blood to get through to the brain. The reduced blood flow causes brain cells in the area to die from lack of oxygen. In a haemorrhagic stroke the blood vessel bursts leaking blood into the brain and causing damage. A stroke causes paralysis or weakness in one side of the body. Other effects may include loss of balance, distorted vision and speech, incontinence and difficulty in swallowing. Partial recovery is usual, full recovery possible.

Back to top

U-Z

Visual impairment

The eye is the sensory organ of the visual system - rather like a camera that takes a picture. For sight, not only a healthy eye but also the vision pathways in the brain and the higher brain functions need to be functioning correctly, rather like the cables attaching a camcorder to a TV monitor. If this cabling is defective, however good the camera, a poor signal will be received by the monitor. Even if there is a good picture on the monitor, it may not always be understood properly. This requires learning and other inputs, such as sound, touch and experience. To many people 'blindness' is the complete lack of any sight - a black screen - however, most people with severe vision impairment who are registered as 'blind' do have some useful vision. Some can even see to read but cannot walk around easily as they have extreme tunnel vision. Others can navigate skilfully but have great difficulty in recognising even familiar faces and in reading even very large print. Some people are born with their vision impairment and in others the problems develop in childhood or even only in later life.

Back to top