Documentary modes

Bill Nichols, an American academic, introduced the theory of documentary modes in 1991 as an attempt to theorise documentary practice. He suggested that there was a fairly direct linear progression from the early documentaries of the 1930s to the present day, starting with e xpository documentaries, evolving progressively into observational, interactive and, finally, reflexive documentary styles.

More recently, Stella Bruzzi has taken issue with Nichols' idea of a simple chronological progression. She argues that all types of documentaries have existed in different periods, and she adds another mode - the 'performative'. 'Traditionally, documentaries strove to represent reality as faithfully as possible. They relied upon the realist assumption that it was necessary to disguise the conventions used in making the documentary and so appear to offer a window on the world. Conversely, the new performative documentaries herald a different notion of documentary "truth" that acknowledges the construction and artificiality of even the non-fiction film.'

Stella Bruzzi, New Documentary: A Critical Introduction, (2000).

The documentary modes can be summarised as follows:

The expository mode

Characterised by:

• 'Voice of God' narration directly addressing the viewer
• Direct relationship between images and voice-over
• Interviews used only in support of the film's argument
• A conventional narrative structure
• A narrator who also may appear as a 'character' in the film (such as David Attenborough)

The observational mode

Characterised by:

• A non-interventionist or fly-on-the-wall style of presentation
• Unobtrusive camera work, appearing to offer a 'window on the world'
• Relatively long takes connoting that nothing has been 'cut out'
• Zoom lenses and hand-held camera following the action
• Editing which gives the impression of 'lived' or 'real' time
• Speech which is overheard and not directed to camera or audience
• Synchronous sound
• Only diegetic music (originating in the documentary's world)

The interactive mode

Characterised by:

• The acknowledged presence of the camera and crew
• The film-maker speaking directly to her/his subjects
• An emphasis on monologues and dialogues
• Representation of multiple viewpoints, contributing different information
• Editing which maintains logical continuity
• No definitive argument, leaving the audience to decide

The reflexive mode

Characterised by:

• Acknowledgement of the medium to problematise it
• Discussion of the problems of making the documentary
• Making explicit the process of representation
• Making explicit institutional issues (such as who is funding it)

The performative mode

Where the documentary maker 'stars' in his/her own film, is also self-reflexive, such as in Kurt & Courtney (1998).

While it is useful to keep all these styles in mind, many documentaries, even early ones, don't fit rigidly into a single category. The seminal Housing Problems, for example, is expository in that it includes interviews to the camera, and interactive in that it has several different voice-overs; it is also observational. Michael Moore's films offer further examples of this hybridity.